Introduction

The concept of simulation has had a long and at times difficult history. The term 'simulate' (verb) is often taken to mean the reproducing or representing of an action or process, real or imaginary, usually with a set of conditions. The term 'simulation' (noun) is usually considered to be the result of simulating. Typically, the purpose of a simulation is to "attempt to solve a problem or consequences of doing something by representing the problem or possible course of events mathematically, often using a computer" (Klabbers, 2009) or, as Deterding (2016) puts it: a design "where the system is intended to model a domain." Some scholars have argued that simulations exist only in the mind, experienced as the consequences of the activity of simulating something (e.g., Crookall, 2011). Bostrom's (2003) philosophical hypothesis of whether we are living inside a computer simulation was preceded by science fiction discussing that idea, and has since prompted other scholars to examine the potential veracity of that claim.

Simulation is closely related to the concept of a model. Defining the borderline between models and simulations, or modeling and simulating, is difficult. A model can be seen as a simplified representation of a subject and simulation as the effect of time on a model (Simpson, 2011). In simulation research, the topic has especially been discussed within the study of instrumental and applied simulation. Classic examples include flight and business simulators, which seek to reproduce actual conditions for the purpose of training, sometimes also for entertainment. Other common uses are military and medical simulations. A key advantage of such tools is the possibility to experiment in a safe environment (Tsuchiya & Tsuchiya, 1999).

Crookall, Oxford and Saunders (1987) state that a simulation can be seen as a special kind of model of a system, which represents certain parts of such a system and thereby reduces the cost of error. This is accomplished through representation that simplifies, selects, abstracts and symbolizes. In order to be of value, a simulation has to be isomorphic with a system that it simulates. In other words, relevant parts of the simulation need to be identical enough to the simulated reality, so that lessons learned from its use can be applied outside of the simulation. Seen from this perspective, a simulator is the basis of a simulation, akin to a script for a play or a libretto for an opera. We can liken this to the ways in which many games, as physical or digital objects, are artifacts that become foundations for the processes of gameplay when players engage with them (see Klabbers, 2009; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004).

Simulation or Game?

It is possible to see precursors of a simulation-based view of play in earlier discussions, such as Caillois' (1958) use of "mimicry" to denote play based on imitation. Many of the early simulations used for instrumental purposes were interchangeably called simulations or games (see e.g., Thavikulwat, 2004). This is still reflected in the ways in which educational games are often called "simulation/games" or "gaming simulations", especially by scholars and designers connected to the International Simulation and Gaming Association (ISAGA) or its local counterparts. An additional (and sometimes confusing) term came into use when, starting in about 2002, educational video game users discovered the book Serious Games by Clark Abt (1970) and began applying that phrase to the games they were using, especially for the purposes of marketing. The term 'serious game' has significant overlap now with simulation/gaming.

A rough division between two broad types of simulations can be observed from the early years of simulation, between simulations that included zero actors during their run-time, and those that may be influenced by one or more actors participating in the simulation run. Traces of this distinction are seen in the contents of the journals Simulation, focusing on general modeling, and Simulation & Gaming, focusing on the study of playable simulations and games that allow one or more human users (players, participants) to be agents in fictional developments. Both journals were established in 1970 and have expanded their scopes since.

The simulation and gaming community debated the limits and permutations of the word 'simulation' extensively for decades (see e.g., Crookall, Oxford & Saunders, 1987), culminating, in many ways, with issue 42(2) of Simulation & Gaming on philosophy and simulation. Role-playing theorists such as John H. Kim and Ron Edwards, in turn, introduced the words 'simulation' and 'simulationism' to that subject at the turn of the millennium, referring to design and player agendas, emphasizing the necessity of supporting an internally coherent fictional world, in a "what would really happen" sense (see e.g., White, 2020). Given the emergence of role-playing games, largely from wargaming (e.g., Peterson, 2021), it is logical that some designers and players would emphasize veracity over winning or narrative-creating goals.

Salen and Zimmerman's (2004) The Rules of Play defines a simulation as "a procedural representation of aspects of 'reality'" (p. 423) and devotes its chapter 27 to an analysis of the connection between simulation and games. Salen and Zimmerman tie simulation with conflict representations and storytelling in games. They state, based on ideas by Warren Robinett (n.d.), that simulations are abstractions, systems, numerical and limited. The third of these criteria (numerical) only fits certain types of simulations. However, this demonstrates how easy it is to associate the word 'simulation' with 'computer simulation'.

More refined divisions have been developed over decades of research. For example, Inbar and Stoll (1972) spoke of heuristic simulations (likely constructions for the benefit of the designer; see Lainema, 2003), machine simulations, man simulations (games), and man-machine simulations (computer games), placing them on twin axes of implicit vs. explicit rules and research vs. teaching. Klabbers (2009) categorizes simulations into three types: closed ones (mode I), open (interactive) ones (mode II), and participative ones (mode III). In the first group are simulations that have a predetermined run-time with low to no interaction, such as industrial dynamics simulations. Mode II simulations allow for stepwise adjustments, in for example the style of batch-processed, turn-based business simulations. Mode III simulations are adaptive and can be adjusted as needed within their existing limits. Adopting one of such divisions enables a researcher to examine both a simulation's properties and its underlying model in a fruitful manner, without needing to re-define every aspect for a reader.

Current Use

Within the current gaming world, the word simulation is used in mainly two forms. The first of these is as a descriptive term for commercial games that seek to provide a realistic example of something that they represent, e.g., a flight or truck simulator, whereas a professional training simulation is more likely to be called a "sim" by its users. Nevertheless, this use emphasizes the ways in which simulations are always partial simplifications. We can therefore say in shorthand that a game for example "simulates physics" while acknowledging that the modeling of all surrounding aspects of the world is incomplete (Jørgensen, 2013), or that a "farming simulator" gives us some but not all aspects of farming. As a general rule, games of this type tend to include the word 'simulator' or a variation thereof in their names, providing genre expectations and suitable branding. As exemplified by game series such as Sim City (e.g., Maxis, 1989) and The Sims (e.g., Electronic Arts, 2000), with extensions to the very serious training tool cases like SimRefinery (Maxis, 1993), a mental connection (the process of representation) exists between something being called a simulation and the idea that the content is realistic. It has also denoted at times that the focus of a game is on its quality of representation, meaning that players interested in, e.g., fascinating narratives or competitive goals should pick up something else to play.

Training simulations of many kinds continue to form a significant market. Like the entertainment simulation/games, they too focus on making certain aspects of reality represented, but for primarily learning purposes. Using a medical simulation, future doctors can hone their skills, while war simulations assist in trying out military strategies, and business games of many types train people in the competencies needed to successfully run enterprises and plan and prepare for futures. Such simulations are increasingly also remarkable in that they are used to also teach so-called 'soft' skills, leading to, for example, knowledge on leadership techniques in addition to management and finance, or patient empathy in addition to diagnostic skills.

The word 'simulation' furthermore denotes a certain tradition, or sets of traditions, within gaming research. Organizations (e.g., the International Simulation and Gaming Association) and journals (e.g., Simulation & Gaming) that have roots in the study and design of simulation/games for mainly instrumental purposes retain the use of the word 'simulation' in order to showcase their connection to such gaming. Although the lines of game studies traditions have blurred to a certain extent during the second decade of this millennium – particularly in that researchers affiliated with DiGRA, ISAGA and/or game design research communities have found each others' works and started citing them – the appearance or the absence of the keyword 'simulation' in the reference list of a scholar still works as a strong indicator of what they are likely to cite on a given subject, and which core works will form the basis of their argumentation.

Simulation is also utilized to discuss the properties of games. The partial, incomplete representativeness permits the use of different levels of simulation fidelity in architecture (Thavikulwat, 2004) and in relation to time (Lainema, 2010) within a simulation. The same simulation can be high-fidelity for some users while low-fidelity to others – a flight simulator can for example seem very representational to a hobbyist, but too simplified to a professional pilot. In both digital and physical environments, the idea of participatory simulation is gaining increasing traction, particularly in social play (e.g., Magelssen, 2014). While one does not have to agree that, for instance, every role-playing scenario is a simulator and an instance of role-playing a simulation of a social situation (Crookall, Oxford & Saunders, 1987), viewing such things from a simulation-oriented perspective opens new venues for research. Likewise, as authors such as Simpson (2011) and Jørgensen (2013) point out, viewing something as a simulation assists in seeing how a given system does or does not correspond with the reality that it purports to model, and therefore cannot provide completely reliable answers for that reality. Simulations are able to use things such as case-based and generalized representations of real-world properties (e.g., water putting out only a particular fire, or any and all fires in a game; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). Although this is of particular importance to simulations used for things such as forecasting or assessing item durability, practices such as game-based learning also need to take this strongly into account (Harviainen, Lainema & Saarinen, 2014). Training simulations likewise rely on this being implemented the right way. This connects to what Bogost (2007) calls procedural literacies: learning the abilities to read a particular system (game) and compare its properties with other systems, including the real world. Implemented well and with sufficient realism, while supported by good briefings and debriefings, simulation/games provide important possibilities for that learning.

Summary

As Simpson (2011) points out, what counts as a simulation cannot be objectively defined. This should be very familiar to anyone working with game definitions (e.g., Stenros, 2017). The word has therefore first and foremost, at least within game descriptions and games research, come to denote a design that seeks high fidelity or maintenance integrity. At the same time, it still also refers to closed simulations where little to no run-time agency is present, and which are very different from simulation/games. Anecdotal evidence points to the direction of the word now being primarily seen as referring to computerized simulations, even as much analog variation exists. Finally, whichever way one tends to lean in terms of terminology, it is worth keeping in mind that different simulation/game, game and simulation communities have their own linguistic norms. One community may use the term 'game' for the same object that another community calls 'simulation'. In addition, within the same community, some will use 'game' as a familiar (even chummy) term for an object that everyone knows is mostly simulation, thus obeying a fundamental law of language – that of economy.

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Author information

J. Tuomas Harviainen (PhD, MBA) studies games from the perspective of information practices and information systems. He is a former co-editor of the journal Simulation & Gaming and a former editor of the International Journal of Role-Playing. He has published on topics such as educational gaming, information in games, game development, games and sexuality and sustainable gamification.

Citation Information

Harviainen, J. T. (2022). Simulation. In Grabarczyk, P. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Ludic Terms (Spring 2022 Edition). URL: https://eolt.org/articles/simulation

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